UGC NET Human Rights & Duties Education Syllabus 2025-26 — Complete Unit-wise Guide

Human Rights & Duties Education is an interdisciplinary subject combining Law, Political Science, Philosophy, and Social Sciences. This subject has grown in relevance with India's active engagement in international human rights bodies and the domestic constitutional discourse on fundamental rights. This guide covers the complete 2025–26 NTA UGC NET syllabus.

Exam Pattern

Unit 1: Philosophy and Foundations of Human Rights

• Natural Rights Tradition: Hobbes (natural state, social contract), Locke (life, liberty, property — Second Treatise on Government), Rousseau (general will), Paine (Rights of Man, 1791).
• Philosophical Approaches: Natural law theory (Aquinas, Grotius — rights grounded in reason and nature); positivism (rights only as legal norms — Austin, Hart); moral rights theory (Alan Gewirth, Alan Dershowitz); capabilities approach (Martha Nussbaum, Amartya Sen — Central Human Capabilities).
• Generations of Rights: First generation — civil and political rights (negative rights — freedom from state interference); Second generation — economic, social, and cultural rights (positive rights — require state action); Third generation — solidarity rights (right to development, peace, clean environment, self-determination); Fourth generation debate — digital rights, rights of future generations.
• Universalism vs. Cultural Relativism: Vienna Declaration (1993) — "human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated"; cultural relativism critique (Asian values debate, Bangkok Declaration 1993); Jack Donnelly's relative universality.
• Human Dignity: Kant's categorical imperative — persons as ends in themselves; Article 1 UDHR; Rawls' theory of justice (veil of ignorance, difference principle).

Unit 2: International Human Rights Law

• International Bill of Rights: UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948 — 30 articles); ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966/1976); ICESCR (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966/1976) — together with UDHR form the International Bill of Rights; Optional Protocols.
• Core UN Human Rights Treaties: ICERD (1965 — racial discrimination); CEDAW (1979 — women); CAT (1984 — torture); CRC (1989 — child rights); ICRMW (1990 — migrant workers); CRPD (2006 — persons with disabilities); CPED (2006 — enforced disappearance).
• UN Human Rights Bodies: Human Rights Council (HRC, 47 members — replaced Commission in 2006); Universal Periodic Review (UPR — every 4.5 years for all states); Special Procedures (Special Rapporteurs, Working Groups); Treaty Bodies (monitoring committees for each treaty).
• Regional Human Rights Systems: European — ECHR (1950), European Court of Human Rights (Strasbourg); Inter-American — ACHR (1969), IACHR, Inter-American Court; African — ACHPR (Banjul Charter 1981), African Court; ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (2012, non-binding).
• International Humanitarian Law (IHL): Four Geneva Conventions (1949) + Additional Protocols (1977, 2005); distinction (civilians vs. combatants), proportionality, military necessity; ICRC role; war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide (ICC jurisdiction).
• Responsibility to Protect (R2P): 2005 World Summit Outcome; three pillars (state responsibility, international assistance, timely decisive response); Libya (2011); Syria failures; debate on sovereignty vs. protection.

Unit 3: Constitutional Framework — India

• Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12–35): Right to Equality (Arts. 14–18 — equality before law, anti-discrimination, untouchability abolition, abolition of titles); Right to Freedom (Arts. 19–22 — six freedoms under Art. 19, protection against arbitrary arrest); Right against Exploitation (Arts. 23–24 — trafficking, forced labour, child labour prohibition); Right to Freedom of Religion (Arts. 25–28); Cultural and Educational Rights (Arts. 29–30); Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art. 32 — "heart and soul of Constitution," Ambedkar).
• Directive Principles (Part IV, Arts. 36–51): Non-justiciable but fundamental in governance; socialist principles (Art. 39 — equal pay, children's care); Gandhian principles (Art. 43 — cottage industries, Art. 46 — SC/ST promotion); liberal-intellectual principles (Art. 44 — UCC, Art. 45 — free education, Art. 48A — environment).
• Fundamental Duties (Part IVA, Art. 51A): Added by 42nd Amendment (1976) — 10 duties; 11th duty added by 86th Amendment (2002) — free and compulsory education for children 6–14.
• Right to Equality vs. Affirmative Action: Art. 15(4)/15(5) — reservations for SC/ST/OBC; Art. 16(4) — reservation in employment; Indra Sawhney case (1992) — 50% ceiling on reservations; EWS 10% (103rd Amendment 2019); Mandal Commission.
• Key Judgments: Maneka Gandhi (1978 — personal liberty and due process); Francis Coralie Mullin (1981 — right to live with dignity); Vishaka (1997 — workplace sexual harassment); NALSA (2014 — transgender rights); Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (2017 — privacy as fundamental right); Navtej Singh Johar (2018 — decriminalisation of homosexuality).

Unit 4: Women's Rights

• International Framework: CEDAW (1979) — "international bill of rights for women"; 30 articles; Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women; Optional Protocol (individual complaints); Beijing Platform for Action (1995) — 12 critical areas; UNSCR 1325 (2000) — women, peace, security.
• Domestic Legal Framework: Dowry Prohibition Act (1961); Maternity Benefit Act (1961, amended 2017); Equal Remuneration Act (1976); Sexual Harassment at Workplace (PoSH Act, 2013); Domestic Violence Act (2005); Hindu Succession Act (1956, amended 2005 — daughters' coparcenary rights); Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act (2019 — triple talaq).
• Violence Against Women: Forms — domestic violence, rape, dowry murder, female foeticide, trafficking, FGM, acid attacks; Nirbhaya case (2012) and Criminal Law Amendment Act (2013 — Verma Committee); fast-track courts; one-stop crisis centres.
• Women's Political Participation: Women's Reservation Bill (33% in Parliament) — passed as Nari Shakti Vandan Act (2023, 106th Amendment), implementation after delimitation post-2026 census; 33% reservation in Panchayati Raj (73rd Amendment, 1992).
• Feminist Perspectives: Liberal feminism (equal rights within existing systems); socialist feminism (patriarchy + capitalism); radical feminism (patriarchy as primary oppression); postcolonial feminism (Spivak — can the subaltern speak?); Dalit feminism (intersectionality of caste, gender, class).

Unit 5: Children's Rights

• UN Convention on Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989): 54 articles; four principles — non-discrimination, best interests of child, right to life and development, respect for child's views; Committee on Rights of the Child; Optional Protocols (armed conflict; sale of children; communications procedure).
• Indian Constitutional and Legal Framework: Art. 24 (no child labour under 14 in hazardous work); Art. 39(e)(f) — state duty; Art. 45 — free compulsory education (now Art. 21A — Right to Education); Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act (2016 — total ban under 14, restricted 14–18 in hazardous occupations); POCSO Act (2012 — Protection of Children from Sexual Offences, amended 2019).
• Right to Education (RTE Act, 2009): Free and compulsory education 6–14 years; 25% reservation for disadvantaged children in private schools; no detention policy (controversial, partially modified 2019); National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR).
• Child Labour and Trafficking: ILO Convention 182 (worst forms of child labour, 1999) — ratified by India (2017); Childline 1098; trafficking (ITPA 1956, Trafficking of Persons Bill); bonded labour (Bonded Labour Abolition Act 1976).
• Child Marriage: Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006); proposed Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill — uniform minimum age 21 for girls; UNICEF data — India has second highest absolute number of child marriages.

Unit 6: Rights of Marginalised Groups

• Scheduled Castes (SC): Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955 — untouchability); SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act (1989, amended 2018); reservation (Art. 335); National Commission for Scheduled Castes; recent SC judgment on sub-classification within SC reservations (Punjab v. Davinder Singh, 2024).
• Scheduled Tribes (ST): Fifth and Sixth Schedules (administration of tribal areas); Forest Rights Act (2006 — individual + community forest rights); PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act, 1996); tribal land alienation; displacement (Narmada, POSCO).
• Persons with Disabilities: CRPD (2006 — India ratified 2007); Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPwD, 2016) — 21 categories of disability (increased from 7), 5% reservation in higher education, 4% in government jobs; National Commission for Persons with Disabilities.
• LGBTQ+ Rights: Navtej Singh Johar (2018, SC) — Section 377 decriminalised; NALSA (2014) — transgender rights; Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act (2019); Supreme Court (2023) — declined to legalise same-sex marriage (referred to Parliament); ongoing struggles for partnership rights, adoption, inheritance.
• Minorities: Art. 29–30 (cultural and educational rights); National Commission for Minorities; Minorities: six notified — Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi; Sachar Committee Report (2006) — Muslim socio-economic status).
• Refugees and Migrants: India not party to 1951 Refugee Convention; UNHCR operates with limited status; Rohingya issue; Afghan refugees; Citizenship Amendment Act (2019) — controversy over religious criteria; NRC (National Register of Citizens) — Assam 2019.

Unit 7: Duties Education

• Constitutional Fundamental Duties (Art. 51A): Eleven duties — abide by Constitution; cherish national symbols; defend sovereignty; promote harmony; preserve composite culture; protect environment; develop scientific temper; safeguard public property; strive for excellence; provide education opportunities for children (11th duty, 2002).
• Verma Committee on Fundamental Duties (1999): Recommendations to make duties enforceable; linkage with rights — rights and duties are two sides of the same coin.
• Duties in International Instruments: UDHR Article 29 — duties to the community; ACHPR (African Charter) — explicit duties chapter (Articles 27–29); UNESCO Associated Schools project — global citizenship education.
• Duties Across Traditions: Dharma in Hinduism and Buddhism; Fardh/Wajib in Islam; Christian stewardship; Gandhian constructive programme as duty; Buddhist social responsibility.
• Duties Education in Schools and Colleges: National Curriculum Framework; value education; human rights literacy; legal literacy; Eklavya and NGO models; NHRC's human rights education programme.

Unit 8: National Human Rights Institutions

• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC): Established under Protection of Human Rights Act (1993); composition (former Chief Justice as chairperson, two former SC judges, two other members); jurisdiction — complaints against state/central government; limitations (no jurisdiction over armed forces); can recommend compensation but cannot enforce; Annual Report to Parliament.
• State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs): Set up in most states; similar mandate; overlap issues with NHRC; coordination problems.
• Other Statutory Bodies: National Commission for Women (NCW, 1992); National Commission for Minorities (NCM, 1992); National Commission for SC (NCSC, Art. 338); National Commission for ST (NCST, Art. 338A); National Commission for OBC; NCPCR; Central Information Commission (Right to Information — RTI Act 2005).
• Paris Principles (1991): Standards for NHRIs — independence, broad mandate, adequate resources, pluralism, cooperation with civil society; A-status vs. B-status accreditation (NHRC India holds A-status).
• Right to Information (RTI): RTI Act (2005) — citizens' right to access government information; Central and State Information Commissions; exemptions (security, fiduciary, third-party); landmark tool for accountability; amendments 2019 (CIC/SIC terms).

Unit 9: Human Rights in Development and Environment

• Right to Development: UN Declaration on the Right to Development (1986) — "inalienable human right"; development as freedom (Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom); Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 2015–2030) — 17 goals; human rights-based approach to development (HRBA).
• Right to a Healthy Environment: Stockholm Declaration (1972, Principle 1); Rio Declaration (1992, Principle 1); UN General Assembly Resolution 76/300 (2022) — recognition of right to clean, healthy, sustainable environment; India's Art. 21 and environmental rights (MC Mehta cases); Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
• Climate Change and Human Rights: OHCHR reports on adverse effects of climate change; climate justice; SIDS (Small Island Developing States) and right to existence; Paris Agreement and human rights; HRC Resolution 40/11 (2019).
• Land and Housing Rights: Forced evictions; tribal displacement (Forest Rights Act); urban poor (Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation, 1985 — right to livelihood); CESCR General Comment 4 (adequate housing).
• Corporate Accountability: UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs, 2011 — Ruggie Framework) — protect, respect, remedy; National Action Plans; supply chain due diligence laws (EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive 2024).

Unit 10: Contemporary Human Rights Issues

• Digital Rights and Privacy: Right to privacy (Puttaswamy 2017); Personal Data Protection Act — India's Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA, 2023); EU GDPR (2018); right to be forgotten; surveillance (Pegasus spyware); freedom of expression online; hate speech and platform responsibility.
• Counter-terrorism and Human Rights: UAPA (Unlawful Activities Prevention Act) — sedition, anti-terror provisions; AFSPA (Armed Forces Special Powers Act) — controversy in Northeast India, J&K; NSA (National Security Act); due process vs. security; NHRC guidelines.
• Human Trafficking: UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (Palermo Protocol, 2000); three Ps — Prevention, Protection, Prosecution; India's ITPA (1956); Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill (pending); Childline 1098; anti-trafficking units.
• Health as Human Right: General Comment 14 (ICESCR — right to highest attainable standard of health — AAAQ framework: availability, accessibility, acceptability, quality); COVID-19 and TRIPS waiver; mental health rights (Mental Healthcare Act 2017 — India).
• Human Rights Defenders: UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders (1998); criminalisation of activism; Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPPs); protection mechanisms; India: concerns about NGO funding (FCRA amendments 2020).

Important Books

FAQs

Who can appear for UGC NET Human Rights & Duties Education?

Candidates with an MA/M.Phil./LL.M. in Human Rights, Law, Political Science, Public Administration, or Social Work with at least 55% marks (50% for reserved categories) from a recognised university are eligible.

What is the most important unit?

Unit 2 (International HR Law — UDHR, ICCPR, ICESCR, treaty bodies) and Unit 3 (Indian Constitution — Fundamental Rights, NHRC) are the highest-yield units. Together they typically contribute 30–35 questions.

Is this a good subject for law students?

Yes, highly suitable. LL.M. graduates in Human Rights, Constitutional Law, or International Law have a natural advantage across most units.

UGC NET मानवाधिकार एवं कर्तव्य शिक्षा सिलेबस 2025-26 — सम्पूर्ण इकाईवार मार्गदर्शिका

मानवाधिकार एवं कर्तव्य शिक्षा एक अंतःविषय विषय है जो कानून, राजनीति विज्ञान, दर्शनशास्त्र और समाज विज्ञान को जोड़ता है। यह विषय भारत की अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार संस्थाओं में सक्रिय भागीदारी और संवैधानिक मौलिक अधिकारों की घरेलू चर्चा के कारण विशेष रूप से प्रासंगिक है।

परीक्षा पैटर्न

इकाई 1: मानवाधिकारों का दर्शन और आधार

• प्राकृतिक अधिकार परंपरा: Hobbes (प्राकृतिक अवस्था, सामाजिक अनुबंध); Locke (जीवन, स्वतंत्रता, संपत्ति); Rousseau (सामान्य इच्छा); Paine (Rights of Man, 1791)।
• दार्शनिक दृष्टिकोण: प्राकृतिक कानून सिद्धांत (Aquinas, Grotius); प्रत्यक्षवाद (Austin, Hart); नैतिक अधिकार सिद्धांत; क्षमता दृष्टिकोण (Martha Nussbaum, Amartya Sen)।
• अधिकारों की पीढ़ियां: प्रथम — नागरिक और राजनीतिक; द्वितीय — आर्थिक, सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक; तृतीय — एकजुटता/समूह अधिकार; चतुर्थ — डिजिटल अधिकार (चर्चाधीन)।
• सार्वभौमिकता vs. सांस्कृतिक सापेक्षवाद: वियना घोषणा (1993) — "HR सार्वभौमिक, अविभाज्य, परस्पर-निर्भर"; बैंकॉक घोषणा (1993) — Asian values बहस।
• मानव गरिमा: Kant का categorical imperative; UDHR अनुच्छेद 1; Rawls का न्याय सिद्धांत।

इकाई 2: अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार कानून

• अंतर्राष्ट्रीय अधिकार पत्र: UDHR (10 दिसंबर 1948, 30 अनुच्छेद); ICCPR (1966/1976); ICESCR (1966/1976) — तीनों मिलकर International Bill of Rights।
• प्रमुख UN मानवाधिकार संधियां: ICERD (1965 — नस्लीय भेदभाव); CEDAW (1979 — महिला); CAT (1984 —拷问); CRC (1989 — बाल अधिकार); CRPD (2006 — दिव्यांग)।
• UN मानवाधिकार निकाय: Human Rights Council (HRC, 47 सदस्य — 2006 में Commission की जगह); Universal Periodic Review (UPR — हर 4.5 वर्ष); Special Procedures; Treaty Bodies।
• क्षेत्रीय प्रणालियां: European — ECHR (1950), स्ट्रासबर्ग न्यायालय; Inter-American — ACHR (1969); African — ACHPR (Banjul Charter 1981)।
• IHL: चार जिनेवा अभिसमय (1949); distinction, proportionality; ICRC; युद्ध अपराध, मानवता के विरुद्ध अपराध (ICC अधिकार क्षेत्र)।
• R2P: 2005 World Summit; तीन स्तंभ; लीबिया (2011); सीरिया में विफलता।

इकाई 3: संवैधानिक ढांचा — भारत

• मौलिक अधिकार (भाग III, अनु. 12–35): समानता का अधिकार (अनु. 14–18); स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार (अनु. 19–22); शोषण के विरुद्ध अधिकार (अनु. 23–24); धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता (अनु. 25–28); सांस्कृतिक एवं शैक्षिक अधिकार (अनु. 29–30); संवैधानिक उपचारों का अधिकार (अनु. 32 — "संविधान का हृदय और आत्मा," अंबेडकर)।
• राज्य नीति के निदेशक तत्व (भाग IV): गैर-न्यायोचित लेकिन शासन में मूलभूत; समाजवादी, गांधीवादी, उदार-बौद्धिक सिद्धांत।
• मूल कर्तव्य (भाग IVA, अनु. 51A): 42वें संशोधन (1976) द्वारा जोड़े गए — 10 कर्तव्य; 86वें संशोधन (2002) द्वारा 11वां — 6–14 वर्ष के बच्चों को शिक्षा।
• प्रमुख निर्णय: मनेका गांधी (1978); विशाखा (1997 — कार्यस्थल यौन उत्पीड़न); NALSA (2014 — ट्रांसजेंडर); Puttaswamy (2017 — गोपनीयता); नवतेज सिंह जोहर (2018 — धारा 377 अपराधमुक्त)।

इकाई 4: महिला अधिकार

• अंतर्राष्ट्रीय ढांचा: CEDAW (1979) — 30 अनुच्छेद; बीजिंग Platform for Action (1995); UNSCR 1325 (2000) — महिला, शांति, सुरक्षा।
• घरेलू कानूनी ढांचा: दहेज निषेध अधिनियम (1961); PoSH Act (2013); घरेलू हिंसा अधिनियम (2005); Hindu Succession Act संशोधन (2005 — बेटियों के सहदायिक अधिकार); Muslim Women Act (2019 — तीन तलाक)।
• महिलाओं के विरुद्ध हिंसा: Nirbhaya मामला (2012); Criminal Law Amendment Act (2013 — Verma Committee); fast-track courts।
• राजनीतिक भागीदारी: नारी शक्ति वंदन अधिनियम (2023, 106वां संशोधन) — Parliament में 33% आरक्षण; 73वां संशोधन — पंचायत में 33%।

इकाई 5: बाल अधिकार

• CRC (1989): 54 अनुच्छेद; चार सिद्धांत — गैर-भेदभाव, बच्चे का सर्वोत्तम हित, जीवन और विकास का अधिकार, बच्चे के विचारों का सम्मान।
• भारतीय कानूनी ढांचा: अनु. 24, 39(e)(f), 21A; Child Labour Amendment Act (2016 — 14 वर्ष से कम पर पूर्ण प्रतिबंध); POCSO Act (2012, संशोधित 2019)।
• शिक्षा का अधिकार (RTE 2009): 6–14 वर्ष; निजी स्कूलों में 25% आरक्षण; NCPCR।
• बाल विवाह: Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006); UNICEF — भारत में दूसरी सबसे अधिक संख्या।

इकाई 6: हाशिये के समूहों के अधिकार

• अनुसूचित जाति: नागरिक अधिकार संरक्षण अधिनियम (1955); SC/ST अत्याचार निवारण अधिनियम (1989, संशोधित 2018); NCSC; sub-classification निर्णय (2024)।
• अनुसूचित जनजाति: पांचवीं/छठी अनुसूची; Forest Rights Act (2006); PESA (1996)।
• दिव्यांग व्यक्ति: CRPD (2006); RPwD Act (2016) — 21 श्रेणियां; उच्च शिक्षा में 5%, सरकारी नौकरी में 4% आरक्षण।
• LGBTQ+: नवतेज जोहर (2018 — धारा 377 अपराधमुक्त); Transgender Persons Act (2019); SC (2023) — समलैंगिक विवाह अस्वीकृत (Parliament को संदर्भित)।
• अल्पसंख्यक: अनु. 29–30; NCM; छह अधिसूचित अल्पसंख्यक; Sachar Committee Report (2006)।

इकाई 7: कर्तव्य शिक्षा

• मूल कर्तव्य (अनु. 51A): 11 कर्तव्य; Verma Committee (1999) — कर्तव्यों को प्रवर्तनीय बनाने की सिफारिश।
• अंतर्राष्ट्रीय दस्तावेजों में कर्तव्य: UDHR अनुच्छेद 29 — समुदाय के प्रति कर्तव्य; ACHPR — स्पष्ट कर्तव्य अध्याय।
• परंपराओं में कर्तव्य: हिंदू धर्म में धर्म; इस्लाम में फर्ज/वाजिब; गांधी का रचनात्मक कार्यक्रम।
• विद्यालयों में कर्तव्य शिक्षा: National Curriculum Framework; मूल्य शिक्षा; NHRC का HR शिक्षा कार्यक्रम।

इकाई 8: राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार संस्थाएं

• NHRC: Protection of Human Rights Act (1993); पूर्व CJI अध्यक्ष; NHRC भारत — A-status (Paris Principles)।
• अन्य वैधानिक निकाय: NCW (1992); NCM (1992); NCSC; NCST; NCPCR; CIC (RTI Act 2005)।
• Paris Principles (1991): NHRI की स्वतंत्रता, व्यापक जनादेश, पर्याप्त संसाधन, बहुलवाद के मानक।
• RTI Act (2005): नागरिकों का सरकारी सूचना तक पहुंच का अधिकार; 2019 में संशोधन।

इकाई 9: विकास और पर्यावरण में मानवाधिकार

• विकास का अधिकार: UN Declaration 1986; Amartya Sen — Development as Freedom; SDGs 2030; HRBA दृष्टिकोण।
• स्वस्थ पर्यावरण का अधिकार: Stockholm (1972); Rio (1992); UNGA 76/300 (2022) — स्वच्छ, स्वस्थ, टिकाऊ पर्यावरण का अधिकार; भारत में अनु. 21 (MC Mehta मामले)।
• जलवायु परिवर्तन और HR: OHCHR रिपोर्टें; जलवायु न्याय; Paris Agreement और HR; HRC Resolution 40/11 (2019)।
• कॉर्पोरेट जवाबदेही: UN Guiding Principles on Business & HR (UNGPs, 2011 — Ruggie Framework) — Protect, Respect, Remedy।

इकाई 10: समकालीन मानवाधिकार मुद्दे

• डिजिटल अधिकार और गोपनीयता: Puttaswamy (2017); DPDPA (2023); EU GDPR (2018); Pegasus spyware; hate speech।
• आतंकवाद-निरोध और HR: UAPA; AFSPA — पूर्वोत्तर, J&K में विवाद; NSA; due process।
• मानव तस्करी: Palermo Protocol (2000) — तीन Ps; ITPA (1956); Childline 1098।
• स्वास्थ्य अधिकार: CESCR General Comment 14 — AAAQ framework; COVID-19 और TRIPS waiver; Mental Healthcare Act (2017)।
• मानवाधिकार रक्षक: UN Declaration 1998; SLAPP; FCRA संशोधन (2020) — NGO चिंताएं।

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सबसे महत्वपूर्ण इकाई कौन सी है?

Unit 2 (अंतर्राष्ट्रीय HR कानून) और Unit 3 (भारतीय संविधान — मौलिक अधिकार, NHRC) सबसे अधिक उपज देने वाली इकाइयां हैं।